Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience - Volume 34, issue 2

Authors: Schecklmann, Martin | Giani, Anette | Tupak, Sara | Langguth, Berthold | Raab, Vincent | Polak, Thomas | Várallyay, Csanád | Großmann, Wilma | Herrmann, Martin J. | Fallgatter, Andreas J.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Purpose: Clinical effects of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) in chronic tinnitus are moderate. More precise coil localisation strategies, innovative stimulation protocols, and identification of predictors for treatment response were proposed as promising attempts to enhance treatment efficacy. In this pilot study we investigated neuronavigated continuous theta burst TMS (cTBS). Methods: Twenty-three patients received neuronavigated cTBS over the left primary auditory cortex in a randomized sham-controlled trial (verum = 12; sham = 11). Treatment response was evaluated with tinnitus questionnaires and numeric rating scales. Immediate change in numeric rating scales during the first session was used as predictor for treatment response. …Results: Tinnitus was significantly reduced after treatment, but there were no superior effects between verum vs. sham treatment. Immediate change in the first treatment session predicted the response to treatment only in the verum group. Conclusions: In our study, verum cTBS was not superior to sham which highlights the persistent need for improving non-invasive brain stimulation techniques for the treatment of tinnitus. Future research should focus on the transfer of positive single session effects to daily treatment trials. Show more

Keywords: Transcranial magnetic stimulation, TMS, theta burst stimulation, TBS, ringing in the ears, tinnitus, neuronavigation, auditory cortex

DOI: 10.3233/RNN-150518

Citation: Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 165-175, 2016

Authors: Guo, Yi | He, Yitao | Tang, Bingshan | Ma, Kefu | Cai, Zhili | Zeng, Siling | Zhang, Ying | Jiang, Xin

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Purpose: To evaluate the effect of using fluoxetine at different time intervals after ischemic stroke on neurological functional prognosis in China. Methods: The patients enrolled were randomly allocated to three groups. Group A received fluoxetine 20 mg/day immediately; group B received fluoxetine 20 mg/day 7 days after enrollment; and group C did not receive fluoxetine. The therapeutic duration of fluoxetine was 90 days and the follow-up period was 180 days. Results: The mean NIHSS score at day 90 was significantly lower in group A than group C (P  = 0.005), while at day 180, the mean score in …group A was significantly lower than groups B and C (P  = 0.035, P  = 0.000), respectively. The mean BI score at day 90 was significantly higher in group A than group C (P  = 0.001), while at day 180, the mean score in group A was significantly higher than groups B and C (P  = 0.036, P  = 0.000), respectively. Regression analysis indicated that lower NIHSS score and higher BI score at day 180 were attributed to the early administration of fluoxetine. Conclusions: In patients with ischemic stroke, early administration of fluoxetine may improve the neurological functional prognosis. Show more

Keywords: Fluoxetine, ischemic stroke, neurological functional prognosis, time intervals

DOI: 10.3233/RNN-150535

Citation: Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 177-187, 2016

Authors: Palm, Ulrich | Chalah, Moussa A. | Padberg, Frank | Al-Ani, Tarik | Abdellaoui, Mohamed | Sorel, Marc | Dimitri, Dalia | Créange, Alain | Lefaucheur, Jean-Pascal | Ayache, Samar S.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Purpose: Pain and cognitive impairment are frequent symptoms in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). Neglecting experimental pain and paying attention to demanding tasks is reported to decrease the pain intensity. Little is known about the interaction between chronic neuropathic pain and attention disorders in MS. Recently, transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) was used to modulate various cognitive and motor symptoms in MS. We aimed to study the effects of transcranial random noise stimulation (tRNS), a form of transcranial electric stimulation, over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) on attention and neuropathic pain in MS patients. Methods: 16 …MS patients were included in a randomized, sham-controlled, cross-over study. Each patient randomly received two tRNS blocks, separated by three weeks of washout interval. Each block consisted of three consecutive daily sessions of either active or sham tRNS. The patients were evaluated for pain, attention and mood and further underwent an electrophysiological evaluation. Results: Compared to sham, tRNS showed a trend to decrease the N2-P2 amplitudes of pain related evoked potentials and improve pain ratings. Attention performance and mood scales did not change after stimulations. Conclusions: This study suggests the role of tRNS in pain modulation, which could have been more evident with longer stimulation protocols. Show more

Keywords: Transcranial random noise stimulation, tRNS, multiple sclerosis, fatigue, pain, depression, attention

DOI: 10.3233/RNN-150557

Citation: Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 189-199, 2016

Authors: Lee, Hae In | Park, Jung Hwa | Park, Min Young | Kim, Nam Gyun | Park, Kyoung-Jun | Choi, Byung Tae | Shin, Yong-II | Shin, Hwa Kyoung

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Purpose: Transcranial low-level light therapy (LLLT) has gained interest as a non-invasive, inexpensive and safe method of modulating neurological and psychological functions in recent years. This study was designed to examine the preventive effects of LLLT via visible light source against cerebral ischemia at the behavioral, structural and neurochemical levels. Methods: The mice received LLLT twice a day for 2 days prior to photothrombotic cortical ischemia. Results: LLLT significantly reduced infarct size and edema and improved neurological and motor function 24 h after ischemic injury. In addition, LLLT markedly inhibited Iba-1- and GFAP-positive cells, which was …accompanied by a reduction in the expression of inflammatory mediators and inhibition of MAPK activation and NF-κ B translocation in the ischemic cortex. Concomitantly, LLLT significantly attenuated leukocyte accumulation and infiltration into the infarct perifocal region. LLLT also prevented BBB disruption after ischemic events, as indicated by a reduction of Evans blue leakage and water content. These findings were corroborated by immunofluorescence staining of the tight junction-related proteins in the ischemic cortex in response to LLLT. Conclusions: Non-invasive intervention of LLLT in ischemic brain injury may provide a significant functional benefit with an underlying mechanism possibly being suppression of neuroinflammation and reduction of BBB disruption. Show more

Keywords: Low-level light therapy, focal cerebral ischemia, blood-brain barrier, neuroinflammation

DOI: 10.3233/RNN-150559

Citation: Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 201-214, 2016

Authors: Costanzo, Floriana | Varuzza, Cristiana | Rossi, Serena | Sdoia, Stefano | Varvara, Pamela | Oliveri, Massimiliano | Giacomo, Koch | Vicari, Stefano | Menghini, Deny

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Purpose: There is evidence that non-invasive brain stimulation transitorily modulates reading by facilitating the neural pathways underactive in individuals with dyslexia. The study aimed at investigating whether multiple sessions of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) would enhance reading abilities of children and adolescents with dyslexia and whether the effect is long-lasting. Methods: Eighteen children and adolescents with dyslexia received three 20-minute sessions a week for 6 weeks (18 sessions) of left anodal/right cathodal tDCS set at 1 mA over parieto-temporal regions combined with a cognitive training. The participants were randomly assigned to the active or the sham treatment; …reading tasks (text, high and low frequency words, non-words) were used as outcome measures and collected before treatment, after treatment and one month after the end of treatment. The tolerability of tDCS was evaluated. Results: The active group showed reduced low frequency word reading errors and non-word reading times. These positive effects were stable even one month after the end of treatment. None reported adverse effects. Conclusions: The study shows preliminary evidence of tDCS feasibility and efficacy in improving non-words and low frequency words reading of children and adolescents with dyslexia and it opens new rehabilitative perspectives for the remediation of dyslexia. Show more

Keywords: Brain stimulation, parieto-temporal regions, cognitive training

DOI: 10.3233/RNN-150561

Citation: Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 215-226, 2016

Authors: Roosink, Meyke | Robitaille, Nicolas | Jackson, Philip L. | Bouyer, Laurent J. | Mercier, Catherine

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Purpose: Motor imagery can improve motor function and reduce pain. This is relevant to individuals with spinal cord injury (SCI) in whom motor dysfunction and neuropathic pain are prevalent. However, therapy efficacy could be dependent on motor imagery ability, and a clear understanding of how motor imagery might be facilitated is currently lacking. Thus, the aim of the present study was to assess the immediate effects of interactive virtual feedback on motor imagery performance after SCI. Methods: Nine individuals with a traumatic SCI participated in the experiment. Motor imagery tasks consisted of forward (i.e. simpler) and backward …(i.e. more complex) walking while receiving interactive versus static virtual feedback. Motor imagery performance (vividness, effort and speed), neuropathic pain intensity and feasibility (immersion, distraction, side-effects) were assessed. Results: During interactive feedback trials, motor imagery vividness and speed were significantly higher and effort was significantly lower as compared static feedback trials. No change in neuropathic pain was observed. Adverse effects were minor, and immersion was reported to be good. Conclusions: This exploratory study showed that interactive virtual walking was feasible and facilitated motor imagery performance. The response to motor imagery interventions after SCI might be improved by using interactive virtual feedback. Show more

Keywords: Spinal cord injury, visual feedback, virtual reality therapy, gait, chronic pain

DOI: 10.3233/RNN-150563

Citation: Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 227-235, 2016

Authors: Duret, Christophe | Courtial, Ophélie | Grosmaire, Anne Gaelle

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Purpose: Kinematic assessments are increasingly used as motor outcome measures during upper limb robot-assisted training, in addition to clinical scales. However, their relevance has not been evaluated much. Methods: Thirty-eight patients with severe sub-acute stroke (age 56 ± 17 [19–87] years; time since stroke, 55 ± 22 days) carried out 16 sessions (average 3/week, 35 ± 15 days) of upper limb robot-assisted training combined with standard therapy. Pre/post motor performance was evaluated using the Fugl-Meyer Assessment scale, Motor Status Scale (MSS) and kinematic measures. Motor outcomes were compared and relationships between clinical and kinematic outcomes were analyzed. …Results: All clinical and kinematic outcomes improved after training (p  <  0.01). FM score increased from 17.7 ± 10.0 to 28.6 ± 15.4. All baseline kinematic measures were strongly correlated with clinical scores. Correlations between clinical and kinematic changes were moderate (r  = –0.65 for change in FM Proximal score and change in accuracy measure). However, smoothness and accuracy indicators were shown to be responsive measures. Conclusion: This study demonstrated that baseline kinematic measures and their pre/post training changes were significantly correlated with clinical motor outcome measures. However, even if kinematic measures are valid for the evaluation of motor impairment we cannot propose to substitute common clinical measures of motor function which also evaluate functional abilities of the upper limb. Show more

Keywords: Hemiparesis, upper limb, sub-acute stroke, robotic therapy, kinematics

DOI: 10.3233/RNN-150565

Citation: Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 237-245, 2016

Authors: Fusco, Augusto | Gallotta, Maria Chiara | Iosa, Marco | Morone, Giovanni | Iasevoli, Luigi | Trifoglio, Domenica | Saraceni, Vincenzo Maria | Paolucci, Stefano | Baldari, Carlo | Guidetti, Laura

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Purpose: Recently, Motor Imagery (MI) has been associated with the execution of movements miming in part the mentally represented action (dynamic MI, dMI). Preliminary studies have reported as dMI may improve trainings in sport, with imagery timing close to the physical execution one. This study was aimed to investigate time and spatial parameters of dMI with actual locomotion in people with stroke. Methods: Twelve patients (stroke group, SG) were compared with twelve healthy elderly (elderly group, EG) and twenty young adults (young group, YG). Subjects performed mental representations of different walking (forward, FW; lateral, LW, backward, BW), …accompanied or not by movements imitating walking (dMI and static MI, sMI). Then, they performed actual locomotion (AL). Outcome measures were related to the time and the number of steps spent for completing the tasks for all the given locomotor conditions. Results: Significant differences were found in patients with respect to healthy subjects, with time in sMI significantly shorter than in dMI (p  < 0.004) and AL (p  < 0.002), but not between dMI and AL in FW (p  = 0.806). In patients, times obtained in sMI and dMI was significantly shorter with respect to those of AL in LW and BW. Patients performed imagery tasks with similar times in all locomotion. Healthy groups did not reveal differences among tasks in BW, while significant differences were found in LW. Analogous results were found in terms of number of performed steps. Conclusions: In patients with stroke, a spatiotemporal functional equivalence with AL was found only for dMI, and not for sMI, in forward walking. This could be due to familiarity with this task. These results might have implications for the rehabilitative techniques based on MI. Show more

Keywords: Walking, dynamic motor imagery, locomotor body schema, locomotion, task-dependent activity

DOI: 10.3233/RNN-150573

Citation: Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 247-256, 2016

Authors: Caudle, Krista L. | Lu, Xi-Chun M. | Mountney, Andrea | Shear, Deborah A. | Tortella, Frank C.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Purpose: We assessed the therapeutic efficacy of FDA-approved anti-epileptic drug Levetiracetam (LEV) to reduce post-traumatic nonconvulsive seizure (NCS) activity and promote neurobehavioral recovery following 10% frontal penetrating ballistic-like brain injury (PBBI) in male Sprague-Dawley rats. Methods: Experiment 1 anti-seizure study: 50 mg/kg LEV (25 mg/kg maintenance doses) was given twice daily for 3 days (LEV3D ) following PBBI; outcome measures included seizures incidence, frequency, duration, and onset. Experiment 2 neuroprotection studies: 50 mg/kg LEV was given twice daily for either 3 (LEV3D ) or 10 days (LEV10D ) post-injury; outcome measures include motor (rotarod) and cognitive (water maze) functions. …Results: LEV3D treatment attenuated seizure activity with significant reductions in NCS incidence (54%), frequency, duration, and delayed latency to seizure onset compared to vehicle treatment. LEV3D treatment failed to improve cognitive or motor performance; however extending the dosing regimen through 10 days post-injury afforded significant neuroprotective benefit. Animals treated with the extended LEV10D dosing regimen showed a twofold improvement in rotarod task latency to fall as well as significantly improved spatial learning performance (24%) in the MWM task. Conclusions: These findings support the dual anti- seizure and neuroprotective role of LEV, but more importantly identify the importance of an extended dosing protocol which was specific to the therapeutic targets studied. Show more

Keywords: Traumatic brain injury, post-traumatic seizures, neuroprotection, motor, cognitive function, rat

DOI: 10.3233/RNN-150580

Citation: Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 257-270, 2016

Authors: Platz, Thomas | Schüttauf, Johannes | Aschenbach, Julia | Mengdehl, Christine | Lotze, Martin

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Purpose and methods: The study sought to alter visual spatial attention in young healthy subjects by a neuronavigated inhibitory rTMS protocol (cTBS-600) to right brain areas thought to be involved in visual attentional processes, i.e. the temporoparietal junction (TPJ) and the posterior middle frontal gyrus (pMFG), and to test the reversibility of effects by an additional consecutive cTBS to the homologue left brain cortical areas. Results: Healthy subjects showed a leftward bias of the egocentric perspective for both visual-perceptive and visual-exploratory tasks specifically for items presented in the left hemifield. cTBS to the right TPJ, and less …systematically to the right pMFG reduced this bias for visuo-spatial and exploratory visuo-motor behaviour. Further, a consecutive cTBS to the left TPJ changed the bias again towards the left for a visual-perceptive task. Conclusions: The evidence supports the notion of an involvement of the right TPJ (and pMFG) in spatial visual attention. The observations further indicate that inhibitory non-invasive brain stimulation (cTBS) to the left TPJ has a potential for reversing a rightward bias of spatial attention when the right TPJ is dysfunctional. Accordingly, the findings could have implications for therapeutic rTMS development for right brain damaged patients with visual neglect. Show more

Keywords: Neglect, cortex, transcranial magnetic stimulation, spatial attention, exploration, egocentric, allocentric, temporoparietal junction, TPJ, middle frontal gyrus, MFG

DOI: 10.3233/RNN-150582

Citation: Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 271-285, 2016

Authors: Palmateer, Julie | Pan, Jie | Pandya, Arushi | Martin, Lianna | Kumar, Sungita | Ofomata, Adaora | Jones, Theresa A. | Gore, Andrea C. | Schallert, Timothy | Hurn, Patricia D.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Purpose: Approximately one-fourth of stroke survivors are aphasic. Speech therapy is the main treatment approach but leaves most patients with chronic disability. Attempts to improve this situation are hampered by a lack of mechanistic understanding of the disability and treatments, reflecting the neglect of this impairment modality in pre-clinical research. Accordingly, we devised a novel murine model of speech-related impairment after stroke to investigate the role of language- and plasticity-associated molecules. Rodents communicate socially with ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs), conveying semantic and semiotic information with complex frequency modulated “songs” and alarm calls. Methods: Transient focal cerebral ischemia was …induced in male C57BL6 mice via either 30 or 45 minutes of reversible right MCAO using the intraluminal filament technique. Nine days post-operatively brains are stained with TTC and analyzed for infarct volume. For behavioral measures health scores are taken (days 1–4), cylinder tests and USV recordings performed at days 3 and 7 post operatively. Real time PCR was performed at 24 and 48 hour and 7 day time points to quantify mRNA expression of communication-related genes (Foxp2, Foxp1, Srpx2, Cntnap2 and Gapdh ). Immunohistochemistry was performed to localize FOXP2 protein. Results: After middle cerebral artery occlusion of either 30 or 45 minutes duration, mice demonstrate profoundly impaired socially evoked USVs. In addition, there is suppression of the language-associated transcription factor, Forkhead box protein 2 (Foxp2 ), and its downstream binding partner, contactin-associated protein 2 (Cntnap2 ). Conclusion: These findings set a foundation for further studies of mechanisms and novel treatment strategies for post-stroke vocalization impairments. Show more

Keywords: Cerebral ischemia, contactin-associated protein 2, Forkhead box protein 2, stroke, ultrasonic vocalization

DOI: 10.3233/RNN-150583

Citation: Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 287-295, 2016

Authors: van Vugt, F.T. | Kafczyk, T. | Kuhn, W. | Rollnik, J.D. | Tillmann, B. | Altenmüller, E.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Purpose: Learning to play musical instruments such as piano was previously shown to benefit post-stroke motor rehabilitation. Previous work hypothesised that the mechanism of this rehabilitation is that patients use auditory feedback to correct their movements and therefore show motor learning. We tested this hypothesis by manipulating the auditory feedback timing in a way that should disrupt such error-based learning. Methods: We contrasted a patient group undergoing music-supported therapy on a piano that emits sounds immediately (as in previous studies) with a group whose sounds are presented after a jittered delay. The delay was not noticeable to …patients. Thirty-four patients in early stroke rehabilitation with moderate motor impairment and no previous musical background learned to play the piano using simple finger exercises and familiar children’s songs. Results: Rehabilitation outcome was not impaired in the jitter group relative to the normal group. Conversely, some clinical tests suggests the jitter group outperformed the normal group. Conclusions: Auditory feedback-based motor learning is not the beneficial mechanism of music-supported therapy. Immediate auditory feedback therapy may be suboptimal. Jittered delay may increase efficacy of the proposed therapy and allow patients to fully benefit from motivational factors of music training. Our study shows a novel way to test hypotheses concerning music training in a single-blinded way, which is an important improvement over existing unblinded tests of music interventions. Show more

Keywords: Stroke rehabilitation, sensorimotor integration, music intervention, timing, auditory feedback, motor learning

DOI: 10.3233/RNN-150588

Citation: Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 297-311, 2016

Authors: Bates, Kristyn A. | Drummond, Eleanor S. | Cozens, Greg S. | Harvey, Alan R.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Purpose: There is considerable variability in the extent and nature of the glial response to injury and neurodegeneration. Transplantation of fetal cortical tissue onto the brain of neonatal host rats or mice results in region-specific changes dependent on where the fetal tissue is placed. These changes include chronic astrocytic and microglial gliosis, oxidative stress, and altered metabolism of a number of proteins associated with the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease. Such changes are only observed in heterotopic (cortex-to-midbrain) grafts and are not observed in homotopic cortex-to-cortex grafts. We investigated two possible triggers for the region-specific gliosis observed in our transplant …model hypothesizing that either i) poor vascularization and lack of blood brain barrier integrity or ii) an inflammatory response initiated by the transplantation process, contributed to establishing chronic pathological changes. Methods: We analyzed the time course of neovascularization, blood brain barrier permeability and inflammation using a combination of immunohistochemistry, enzyme-linked immunosorbant assay and Evan’s blue dye extravasation techniques. Results: Blood brain barrier permeability and altered neovascularization occurred prior to the onset of gliosis in heterotopic grafts. Conclusion: These data suggest that ischemic conditions and blood brain barrier damage can be a primary mechanism that initiates chronic gliosis and associated inflammatory changes in central nervous system tissue. Show more

Keywords: Astrocytes, transplantation, inflammation, blood brain barrier, gliosis, neovascularization

DOI: 10.3233/RNN-150591

Citation: Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 313-323, 2016

Authors: Chen, Tianli | Yu, Yong | Hu, Chengliang | Schachner, Melitta

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Purpose: The aim of the study was to investigate the functional role of L1.2, the zebrafish paralog of L1.1 and ortholog of mammalian L1CAM in adult zebrafish spinal cord regeneration after injury. L1CAM and L1.1 have shown beneficial features in ameliorating nervous system dysfunctions in different experimental paradigms. It thus deemed important to characterize the L1.2 member of the L1CAM family, the functions of which are unknown. Methods: Spinal cord transection of adult zebrafish, application of anti-sense morpholino to reduce L1.2 expression, qPCR, immunohistology, immunoblotting, in situ hybridization, retrograde tracing, anterograde tracing. Results: Similar …to L1.1, L1.2 expression in adult zebrafish is upregulated after spinal cord transection. By co-localization of in situ hybridization and immunohistology, L1.2 is expressed in neurons and, in contrast to L1.1, it is also expressed in GFAP-immunoreactive glia. Reducing L1.2 protein levels leads to impaired locomotor recovery and reduction of regrowth of severed descending axons from a brain stem nucleus which is composed of neurons innately capable of axonal regrowth. Conclusions: Our findings support the speculation that paralogs of duplicated genes can exert similar functions and may thus represent an advantage over other species that do not carry duplicated genes. Show more

Keywords: Adhesion molecule L1, morpholino, Danio rerio, regeneration, spinal cord injury

DOI: 10.3233/RNN-150602

Citation: Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 325-335, 2016

Authors: Washabaugh, Edward P. | Krishnan, Chandramouli

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Purpose: Accurate coil placement over a target area is critical during transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), as small deviations can alter testing outcomes. Accordingly, frameless stereotaxic systems (FSS) are recommended for reliable coil placement during TMS applications. However, FSS is not practical due to the cost associated with procuring such systems. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to develop a low-cost TMS coil tracking approach using simple webcams and an image processing algorithm in LabVIEW Vision Assistant. Methods: A system was created using two webcams, retroreflective markers, and computer stereovision, for tracking the TMS coil over a …target area. Accuracy of the system was validated in both the global and local reference frames, while repeatability was measured within- and between-days for placement of the TMS coil over the target area relative to the head. The feasibility of our system was also verified by collecting motor evoked potentials (MEPs) of first dorsal interosseous muscle from human subjects. Results: The results of this study indicated that the system was highly accurate and repeatable, and could track the coil position with <5 mm error and orientation <1.1° error from the target. We also observed larger and more consistent MEPs when stimulating the brain using feedback from the coil tracking system than when the examiner attempted to stimulate without any feedback. Conclusion: The findings suggest that webcam-based coil tracking is a feasible low-cost solution to track coil positions during TMS procedures. Show more

Keywords: Neuronavigation, motion tracking, motor mapping, real time, stereotaxy

DOI: 10.3233/RNN-150609

Citation: Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 337-346, 2016