Work - Volume 63, issue 4

Authors: Milligan, Gemma S. | Blacker, Sam D. | Brown, Pieter E. H. | Siddall, Andrew G.

Article Type: Editorial

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-192951

Citation: Work, vol. 63, no. 4, pp. 479-480, 2019

Authors: Gebhardt, Deborah L.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: When one thinks of jobs with physical employment standards, the first thoughts typically center around firefighting, law enforcement, and military jobs. However, there are 100s of arduous jobs that exist in the public and private sectors that range from moderately demanding to strenuous. The Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that 28% of the workforce in the United States performs physically demanding jobs that involve construction, machinery installation and repair, public safety, and other professions. OBJECTIVE: This paper provides a historical perspective of physical employment standards for hiring workers into these arduous jobs, how we arrived at …our current knowledge base, and the challenges faced today when determining and implementing physical employment standards. METHOD: This narrative review draws on evidence from 62 published sources. RESULTS: This paper focuses on the need for a multidisciplinary approach to identifying job requirements, the professions (e.g., medical, psychology, physiology) that underpin the methodologies, and the knowledge used by current researchers. Descriptions of test and cut score development, legal issues, and challenges for the future also are highlighted. Show more

Keywords: Physical employment standards, physical test

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-192964

Citation: Work, vol. 63, no. 4, pp. 481-494, 2019

Authors: Drain, Jace R. | Reilly, Tara J.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Physically demanding occupations such as the military, firefighting and law enforcement have adopted physical employment standards (PES). The intent of PES is to match the physical capacity of personnel with the physical demands of job tasks. Inadequate physical capacity can affect occupational task performance as well musculoskeletal injury (MSKI) risk. OBJECTIVE: To present contemporary evidence on the relationship(s) between PES, physical training, physical capacity and MSKI in physically demanding occupations, and provide recommendations regarding physical training for improved occupational performance and reduced MSKI risk. METHODS: This narrative review draws on evidence from 104 published sources. …RESULTS: Physical training is central to the development and maintenance of occupationally-relevant physical capacity, as well as mitigating MSKI risk associated with job performance. In addition, given the prevalence of manual handling tasks, strength training needs to be emphasised in physical training regimen. CONCLUSIONS: PES development can inform both physical training and injury prevention strategies in physically demanding occupations. Furthermore, a physical performance continuum is essential to through-career maintenance of occupational performance and health, and the preservation of organisational capability. Finally, organisations should consider the potential to implement PES as maximal performance tests to better understand the relationship between occupational task performance and MSKI risk. Show more

Keywords: Muscular strength, cardiorespiratory endurance, physical performance, occupational performance, musculoskeletal injury

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-192963

Citation: Work, vol. 63, no. 4, pp. 495-508, 2019

Authors: Flower, David J.C. | Tipton, Mike J. | Milligan, Gemma S.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: If current population and health trends continue, workplace demographics will look significantly different by the turn of the century. Organizations will no longer have a steady pipeline of younger workers and will likely need to rely on older workers to remain competitive in the global marketplace. The future multi-generational workforce will bring with it the challenge of maximizing contributions from each generation whilst at the same time addressing the health, safety and wellbeing needs of all workers. OBJECTIVE: This review provides an insight into aging and older workers, and presents recommendations to promote worker longevity. …METHODS: This narrative review draws on evidence from 108 published sources. RESULTS: The relationship between age and work is not simple; factors including the physical nature of the job and worker’s health and fitness interact with age to either increase or decrease the potential effect of age. Evidence suggests that the issues arising from an aging workforce can be managed through polices that focus on active aging through: attitude management; flexible working and the provision of occupational health. CONCLUSION: The integration of such interventions would require company and organizational commitment from the top down with educational programs at all levels to ensure understanding and participation. Show more

Keywords: Aging worker, older worker, healthy worker effect

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-192962

Citation: Work, vol. 63, no. 4, pp. 509-519, 2019

Authors: Nevola, Venturino R. | Lowe, Maxwell D. | Marston, Colin A.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: The roles of the emergency services are challenging and often physically demanding. Readiness to meet these challenges and demands is a fundamental requirement for staff to deliver their roles safely and effectively. Furthermore, employers are required by law to demonstrate every reasonable effort to protect their staff from undue risk of work-related injury. Implementing Physical Employment Standards (PES) enables employers to assign staff to roles for which they are physically-suited whilst contributing to such duty-of-care. However, for PES to be successful and legally-defendable, standards must reflect the demands of those job-tasks which are truly critical to the readiness …of these services. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether a standardised approach to identifying critical job-tasks exists in the development of PES for the emergency services. METHODS: Studies which conducted analysis of job-tasks to develop PES within the emergency services were reviewed. RESULTS: Forty-two reported studies (i.e. records) met the inclusion criteria. Methods to determine job-tasks varied but were typically criteria-based incorporating one, or all, of 9 reported techniques. Methods were subjective and based upon reference to past or present job-task performance. CONCLUSION: Correctly determining critical job-tasks is essential for effective, legally-defendable PES. A standardised method to define job-tasks remains to be established. Show more

Keywords: Physical Employment Standards, PES, occupation, performance, physical strain

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-192914

Citation: Work, vol. 63, no. 4, pp. 521-536, 2019

Authors: Milligan, Gemma S. | O’Halloran, Joseph P. | Tipton, Michael J.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: To establish whether an organization has a valid Physical Employment Standard (PES), it is important to determine those aspects of the job that are critical to operational success. OBJECTIVE: To determine the tasks of the Offshore Wind Industry (OWI) and whether the ability to undertake these tasks is adequately assessed. METHODS: The task analysis was completed through: observations; the research team undertaking tasks; reviewing operational manuals; and focus groups. In addition, a review of existing PES for the OWI was completed to determine whether standards matched with the results of the task analysis. …RESULTS: Five critical tasks were identified: transfer from the vessel to the Transition Piece; ascent of the internal ladder; manoeuvre through hatches; torque and tensioning; and hauling a casualty up the tower. With the exception of aerobic capacity, the physical components required by Technicians are not assessed by the current medical standards, nor are these assessments standardized across companies. CONCLUSIONS: The Job Task Analysis undertaken can be used to inform decisions regarding the physical fitness requirements (selection), assessments and training of Technicians, with a view to ensuring that they are physically capable of undertaking the critical tasks without undue risk of injury to themselves or others. Show more

Keywords: Subject matter experts, wind technicians, physically demanding tasks, ladder climbing

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-192961

Citation: Work, vol. 63, no. 4, pp. 537-545, 2019

Authors: Rue, Carla A. | Rayson, Mark P. | Walker, Ella F. | Doherty, Julianne | Thompson, Jane | Myers, Stephen D. | Blacker, Sam D.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: The National Ambulance Resilience Unit (NARU) works on behalf of each National Health Service (NHS) Ambulance Trust in England to strengthen national resilience and improve patient outcome in challenging pre-hospital scenarios. OBJECTIVE: To conduct a Job Task Analysis and describe the physical demands of NARU roles. METHODS: A focus group was conducted to describe the physically demanding tasks performed by NARU personnel. Subsequently, the physical demands of the identified tasks were measured in 34 NARU personnel (29 male and 5 female). RESULTS: Eleven criterion tasks were identified; Swift Water Rescue (SWR), Re-board Inflatable …Boat (RBIB), Set up Decontamination Tent (SDT), Clinical Decontamination (CD), Movement in Gas Tight Suits (MGTS), Marauding Terrorist Fire Arms (MTFA), Over Ground Rescue (OGR), Unload Incidence Response Unit Vehicle (UIRUV), Above Ground Rescue (AGR), Over Rubble Rescue (ORR) and Subterranean Rescue (SR). The greatest cardiovascular strain was measured during SWR, MGTS, and MTFA. The most thermally challenging tasks were the MTFA, CD, SR and OGR. The greatest muscular strength requirements were during MTFA and OGR. CONCLUSIONS: All five components of fitness (aerobic endurance, anaerobic endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance and mobility) were required for successful completion of the physically demanding tasks performed by NARU personnel. Show more

Keywords: Emergency services, paramedics, physical employment standards

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-192960

Citation: Work, vol. 63, no. 4, pp. 547-557, 2019

Authors: Burdon, Catriona A. | Groeller, Herbert

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Given the physical demands of mining and rescue operations, a physical employment standard was warranted to ensure capable workers are selected. While evaluations of muscular strength and muscular and cardiorespiratory endurance domains are common, assessment of a worker’s ability to meet the physically demanding postural requirements is often neglected. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this investigation was to develop a valid assessment for NSW Mines Rescue Brigadesmen that replicated the combined muscular and cardiorespiratory endurance and postural demands of constructing a timber pillar. METHODS: Oxygen consumption () V ̇ O2 ) was …measured and dominant postures identified when incumbent Brigadesmen constructed a timber pillar. A shelf-stacking assessment was designed and validated. RESULTS: When Brigadesmen performed the block placement role, the task elicited a mean V ̇ O2 of 1.6 L.min–1 , and required repeated placement of ∼8.7 kg blocks from 0 to 3.0 m. A shelf stacking assessment (5 min, mean V ̇ O2 1.7 L.min–1 ) replicating dominant postures and requiring repeated block placement at 0, 0.65, 1.10, 1.64 and 2.20 m was developed. The demand of the test, performed within a discontinuous circuit, was subsequently verified (1.6 L.min–1 ). CONCLUSIONS: A valid, physiological aptitude test that considered the job-related movement patterns, in addition to cardiorespiratory and muscular endurance requirements, was developed for Brigadesmen. Show more

Keywords: Physical employment standards, physiological aptitude test, cardiorespiratory endurance, occupational demands, coal mine

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-192959

Citation: Work, vol. 63, no. 4, pp. 559-569, 2019

Authors: Foulis, Stephen A. | Canino, Maria C. | Cohen, Bruce S. | Gebhardt, Deborah L. | Redmond, Jan E. | Sharp, Marilyn A.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Beginning in 2017, successfully passing the four-part pre-enlistment Occupational Physical Assessment Test (OPAT) became a requirement for all U.S. Army recruits. To ensure the test accurately identifies individuals who are qualified for their job, it was necessary to examine classification errors. OBJECTIVE: The objectives were to 1) determine the accuracy of OPAT cut-scores for combat arms Soldiers, and 2) determine which events contribute to the individuals that are misclassified as passing or failing the OPAT METHODS: A total of 741 trainees were tested on the OPAT within two weeks of entering their initial entry training. …At the end of their training, trainees were tested on simulations of the most physically demanding tasks of their job. RESULTS: There was a high classification concordance (76.5%) between success on the OPAT and job task simulations. False positives (6.7%) were misclassified because they did not perform as well on the strength-dominant task simulations. While the interval aerobic run was the greatest contributor to false negatives (16.8%), previous studies indicated high performance on this event as a potential key indicator of injury and attrition risk. CONCLUSIONS: The findings provide insight on how the accuracy of the OPAT, and similar pre-employment tests, could be improved. Show more

Keywords: Physical employment standards, sensitivity, specificity, cut-scores

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-192958

Citation: Work, vol. 63, no. 4, pp. 571-579, 2019

Authors: Gumieniak, Robert J. | Poulin, Serge | Gledhill, Norman | Jamnik, Veronica

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: To assess the post-implementation impact of the Canadian Type 1 Wildland Fire Fighter (WFF) Fitness Test Circuit (WFX-FIT), a retrospective descriptive analysis of anonymized aggregate data collected between 2012–2016 was conducted. OBJECTIVES: The objectives were to examine the pass rates of Type 1 WFF in each fire jurisdiction and on the standard for exchanging Type 1 WFF between agencies, the interagency exchange standard, by age group and sex and to propose what other information could be of value in assessing the effectiveness of implementing a physical employment standard. METHODS: Frequencies and pass rate percentages were …compared by sex and age groups (<40 years, ≥40 years). RESULTS: Between 2012–2016, pass rates for all participants on the jurisdictional and interagency exchange performance standards improved from 93.2% to 95.6% and 79.1% to 87.6%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that since the WFX-FIT was implemented, there has been an increase in the number of exchange-eligible Type 1 WFF for suppression of wildfires in Canada. Show more

Keywords: Type 1 WFF, initial attack, BFOR, job readiness, fitness

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-192957

Citation: Work, vol. 63, no. 4, pp. 581-589, 2019

Authors: Reilly, Tara J. | Sharp, Marilyn A. | Cao, Michael | Canino, Maria C.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Hesitation to employ females for physically demanding jobs is often due to sex related physical abilities. A physical employment standard (PES) identifies individuals who are physically capable for work. OBJECTIVE: A database containing 300 + sources of physical performance tests (PFTs) will inform potential sex bias for PES development. METHODS: Weighted means and probability density curves illustrate the percentage overlap between male and female performance on PFT data from the armed forces of 11 countries and the open literature. Where female training data were available, the change in percentage overlap illustrates the potential for reduction in sex-related …differences. RESULTS: PFTs demonstrating the extremes of sex disparity were bench press (11 sources) and sit-ups (14 sources) with 9% and 93% overlap in performance, respectively. Training for bench press; pull ups; VO2max ; and upright pull improved female performance by 12%, 22%, 35%, and 23% respectively. This translated into narrowing the gap between male and female mean performance by 1%, 4%, 5%, and 10% respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The ability of PFT to predict performance is essential; however, PFTs with more overlap will facilitate development of PES with reduced sex bias. PFTs with the greatest potential for improvement in females are identified here. Show more

Keywords: Physical employment standards assessment, sex, physical fitness test, strength, endurance, military

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-192956

Citation: Work, vol. 63, no. 4, pp. 591-601, 2019

Authors: Armstrong, Daniel P. | Ross, Gwyneth B. | Graham, Ryan B. | Fischer, Steven L.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Physical employment standards (PES) ensure that candidates can demonstrate the physical capacity required to perform duties of work. However, movement competency, or an individual’s movement strategy, can relate to injury risk and safety, and therefore should be considered in PES. OBJECTIVE: Demonstrate the utility of using artificial intelligence (AI) to detect risk-potential of different movement strategies within PES. METHODS: Biomechanical analysis was used to calculate peak flexion angles and peak extensor moment about the lumbar spine during participants’ performance of a backboard lifting task. Lifts performed with relatively lower and higher exposure to postural and …moment loading on the spine were characterized as “low” or “high” exposure, respectively. An AI model including principal component and linear discriminant analyses was then trained to detect and classify backboard lifts as “low” or “high”. RESULTS: The AI model accurately classified over 85% of lifts as “low” or “high” exposure using only motion data as an input. CONCLUSIONS: This proof-of-principle demonstrates that movement competency can be assessed in PES using AI. Similar classification approaches could be used to improve the utility of PES as a musculoskeletal disorders (MSD) prevention tool by proactively identifying candidates at higher risk of MSD based on movement competency. Show more

Keywords: Artificial intelligence, machine learning, demand-capacity-competency, ergonomics, biomechanical exposure

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-192955

Citation: Work, vol. 63, no. 4, pp. 603-613, 2019

Authors: Myers, Cory J. | Orr, Robin M. | Goad, Kiyoshi S. | Schram, Benjamin L. | Lockie, Robert | Kornhauser, Charlie | Holmes, Ryan | Dawes, J. Jay

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: The general physical task demands of law enforcement may suggest that police Officers are of similar fitness levels across cities, states and countries. OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether fitness levels of police Officers from two different United States (U.S.) Law Enforcement Agencies (LEA) are similar. METHODS: Retrospective data were analysed from two LEAs (LEA1 n  = 79 and LEA2 n  = 319). The data for Officers included: age, mass, 1-minute push-up repetitions, 1-minute sit-up repetitions, vertical jump height, 2.4 km run time (LEA 1) and 20-meter Multi-Stage Fitness Test results (LEA 2). Independent samples t-tests were used to compare …anthropometric and fitness data between LEA with significance set at 0.05. RESULTS: Officers from LEA1 weighed significantly less and performed significantly better than Officers from LEA2 on all fitness measures. When comparing male Officers alone, there was no statistical difference in age and mass; nonetheless, Officers from LEA1 significantly outperformed Officers from LEA2 on all fitness measures. CONCLUSION: While similarities / differences in job tasks performed between these two LEA are not known, the results from this study suggest differences in fitness between these two different U.S. LEA. Fitness standards and training protocols need to be developed and contextualized to each LEA’s specific population and needs. Show more

Keywords: Fitness standards, physical fitness, muscular strength, muscular endurance, aerobic fitness

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-192954

Citation: Work, vol. 63, no. 4, pp. 615-622, 2019

Authors: Armstrong, Daniel P. | Sinden, Kathryn E. | Sendsen, Jonathan | MacPhee, Renée S. | Fischer, Steven L.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: The Ottawa Paramedic Physical Ability Test (OPPAT™) is a physical employment standard for the paramedic sector. If a candidate is unsuccessful in meeting the OPPAT™ performance standard they should be provided with an appropriate accommodation, such as a strength and conditioning program, to improve performance. OBJECTIVE: Develop, implement and evaluate the effectiveness of a 4-week strength and conditioning program on improving OPPAT™ performance and associated fitness measures in paramedic candidates. METHODS: A 4-week strength and conditioning program was developed to focus on strength and power improvements. Based on initial OPPAT™ performance, participants were divided into …high and low performing groups; only the low performing group received the training intervention. OPPAT™ completion times and relevant fitness measures were compared pre- to post- intervention and between groups. RESULTS: Over the 4-weeks, peak lower body power and grip strength did not significantly improve in the intervention group, however OPPAT™ performance improved by 10%. The control group had significantly lower OPPAT™ completion times both pre- and post-intervention (19% and 11% lower respectively), as well as greater grip strength and peak lower body power. CONCLUSIONS: Implementation of a targeted strength and conditioning program successfully improved OPPAT™ performance in low performing candidates. Show more

Keywords: Physical employment standard, accommodation, bona fide occupational requirement, fitness for duty

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-192953

Citation: Work, vol. 63, no. 4, pp. 623-633, 2019

Authors: Yee, Elizabeth B. | Macpherson, Alison | Gledhill, Norman | Gledhill, Scott | Jamnik, Veronica

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of applying six commonly-used and two proposed resting blood pressure (BP) cut-points to clear individuals for maximal exercise in non-clinical health, wellness, commercial fitness agencies and physically demanding occupation test sites. METHODS: Participants (n  = 1670) completed the Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire for Everyone (PAR-Q+) and had their resting BP measured. Individuals with a BP >160/90 mmHg were further screened for contraindications to exercise using the ePARMed-X+ (www.eparmedx.com ), all 1670 were cleared. There were no adverse events during or post exercise. RESULTS: The percentages of participants …cleared for each BP cut-point were: <130/80 mmHg (85.3%), <140/90 mmHg (93.4%), <144/90 mmHg (94.6%), <144/94 mmHg (96.3%), <150/100 mmHg (98.6%), <160/90 mmHg (95.6%), <160/94 mmHg (97.8%) and <160/100 mmHg (99.5%). Individuals who would not have been cleared without further screening were significantly older, had a higher BMI, or had a lower maximal oxygen consumption. CONCLUSIONS: Conservative or lower resting BP cut-points currently applied to clear individuals for maximal exercise provide an unnecessary barrier. For individuals categorized as low-to- moderate risk by evidence-based screening tools such as the PAR-Q+ and ePARmed-X+, we recommend a resting BP cut-point of <160/94 mmHg to clear for maximal exercise until sufficient evidence is amassed to support the increase to <160/100 mmHg. Show more

Keywords: Risk stratification, adverse events, blood pressure screening, physically demanding occupations

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-192952

Citation: Work, vol. 63, no. 4, pp. 635-642, 2019