Work - Volume 32, issue 3

Article Type: Other

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-2009-0821

Citation: Work, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 235-236, 2009

Authors: Benedyk, Rachel | Woodcock, Andrée | Harder, Andrew

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Ergonomics has traditionally considered work done, in a workplace. More recently, this scope has broadened, and the concept of 'work' may now be applied to the satisfactory completion of any task. Thus, learning, being the transformation and extension of the learner's knowledge or skills, can be viewed as work, with its workplace being the educational environment in which learning tasks take place. In accomplishing the learning, the learner interacts with the teachers, other students, equipment, materials, …study plans and the educational organisation; the effectiveness of these learning interactions is influenced by many factors both inside and external to the organisation. To optimize such a multi-factorial process requires the application of an ergonomic approach. This paper proposes an adaptation of the concentric rings model of ergonomics, informed by Kao's earlier model, to produce a new model for educational ergonomics, known as the Hexagon-Spindle Model. In comparison to other published models of educational ergonomics, it is holistic, multi-dimensional, task-related and transferable across a range of educational settings. It extends to characterise a time base for serial and simultaneous tasks, and space shared by multiple learners, and highlights areas where learner/system conflicts may arise. The paper illustrates analysis tools for the application of the model in evaluation and design. Show more

Keywords: Ergonomic model, ergonomic analysis, learning environment

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-2009-0822

Citation: Work, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 237-248, 2009

Authors: Woodcock, Andrée | Woolner, Alex | Benedyk, Rachel

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Schools and other educational environments beyond serving as the primary work places of children provide the backdrop against which formative emotional, psychological, cognitive and physical development takes place. However, ergonomists have paid little attention to the design of these environments, the interactions within them or their organization from a child's perspective. Children with special education needs, such as those with hearing or visual difficulties, cognitive or social disabilities, or even those with …different learning styles may be placed in mainstream schools ill-equipped to suit their needs. Rather than retrofitting classrooms as children with different requirements enter the school, a ground-up approach could be taken to create effective educational environments based on an understanding of the learning tasks to be supported, the learner characteristics and the facilities and interactions needed to effect task completion. The application of an holistic ergonomic model, such as the Hexagon-Spindle model [1,2] provides a means of systematically considering the variables which need to be included in the design and evaluation of such environments. This paper presents a case study of the application of this model to the design of low sensory classrooms and interactive learning experiences for children with an autistic spectrum disorder. Show more

Keywords: Learning environments, children with special educational needs, ergonomic model

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-2009-0823

Citation: Work, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 249-259, 2009

Authors: Heyman, E. | Dekel, H.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Studies indicate that musculoskeletal discomfort and back pain problems are evident not only in adults, but also in children [1,2]. We believe that educating towards a balanced-posture, body-function and movement patterns, as well as their ergonomic implications, can minimize and even prevent these problems. Such an ergonomics awareness educational program has to start at childhood and should be an integral part of the curriculum in the schools. This article presents the educational program "Ergonomics, …Movement & Posture" (EMP), which is taught in elementary schools by Physical Education (PE) students of the Kibbutzim College of Education in Israel, as part of their practicum. Although there has been no formal evaluation of the effectiveness of the program, so far, participating children, their parents, the teachers and the principles have offered positive feedback. Show more

Keywords: Children, curriculum, ergonomics and physical education, posture

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-2009-0824

Citation: Work, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 261-265, 2009

Authors: Coleman, Jemma | Straker, Leon | Ciccarelli, Marina

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Children commonly report musculoskeletal discomfort related to different activities such as computer use, playing electronic games, watching TV, reading, and performing physical and hand intensive activities. Discomfort can result in disability and is a strong predictor of future discomfort in adulthood. Adult beliefs regarding discomfort can affect the level of disability and are modifiable. Children's beliefs regarding discomfort could potentially be modified to minimise disability related to musculoskeletal disorders. The aim of …this study was to describe children's beliefs about why they experience musculoskeletal discomfort, both in general and related to specific activities. Eighty eight school children completed questionnaires on frequency and usual duration of nine activities, whether they had felt discomfort and what they believed was the cause of any discomfort in relation to those activities. The most common activity was TV watching, and most activities were performed for 1 hour or shorter. Bad posture and doing too much of a certain activity were the most common beliefs regarding reasons for discomfort. This study shows that children are developing beliefs that tend to reflect scientific knowledge about risk factors. These beliefs could be incorporated into preventative health interventions. Show more

Keywords: Young people, beliefs, musculoskeletal discomfort

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-2009-0825

Citation: Work, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 267-274, 2009

Authors: Jacobs, Karen | Hudak, Suzanne | McGiffert, Jasmine

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: In recent years, there has been an increasing concern over the association between computer use and reports of discomfort, aches and pains in students. It is suggested that the physical set-up and individual styles of using interactive media has an influence over this discomfort. As children grow up, they will interact and use computers throughout most of their life. Healthy computing may be vital to preventing/reducing the incidence of discomfort/pain associated with interactive media. This research …paper will describe a study, which has collected health and comfort data on the incidence and prevalence of self-reported computer-related musculoskeletal discomfort/pain among 6th and 7th grade students in three middle schools in New England. General base line data from this three-year study is reported. Show more

Keywords: Ergonomics, controls, stretch breaks

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-2009-0826

Citation: Work, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 275-283, 2009

Authors: Noack-Cooper, Karen L. | Sommerich, Carolyn M. | Mirka, Gary A.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: A limited number of studies have focused on computer-use-related MSDs in college students, though risk factor exposure may be similar to that of workers who use computers. This study examined computer use patterns of college students, and made comparisons to a group of previously studied computer-using professionals. 234 students completed a web-based questionnaire concerning computer use habits and physical discomfort respondents specifically associated with computer use. As a group, students reported their computer use to be …at least 'Somewhat likely' 18 out of 24 h/day, compared to 12 h for the professionals. Students reported more uninterrupted work behaviours than the professionals. Younger graduate students reported 33.7 average weekly computing hours, similar to hours reported by younger professionals. Students generally reported more frequent upper extremity discomfort than the professionals. Frequent assumption of awkward postures was associated with frequent discomfort. The findings signal a need for intervention, including, training and education, prior to entry into the workforce. Students are future workers, and so it is important to determine whether their increasing exposure to computers, prior to entering the workforce, may make it so they enter already injured or do not enter their chosen profession due to upper extremity MSDs. Show more

Keywords: Computer, VDT, college students, musculoskeletal discomfort

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-2009-0827

Citation: Work, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 285-298, 2009

Authors: Kimmerly, Lisa | Odell, Dan

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: This study examines the home computer use of 26 children (aged 6–18) in ten upper middle class families using direct observation, typing tests, questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. The goals of the study were to gather information on how children use computers in the home and to understand how both parents and children perceive this computer use. Large variations were seen in computing skills, behaviors, and opinions, as well as equipment and workstation setups. Typing speed averaged …over 40 words per minute for children over 13 years old, and less than 10 words per minute for children younger than 10. The results show that for this sample, Repetitive Stress Injury (RSI) concerns ranked very low among parents, whereas security and privacy concerns ranked much higher. Meanwhile, children's behaviors and workstations were observed to place children in awkward working postures. Photos showing common postures are presented. The greatest opportunity to improve children's work postures appears to be in providing properly-sized work surfaces and chairs, as well as education. Possible explanations for the difference between parental perception of computing risks and the physical reality of children's observed ergonomics are discussed and ideas for further research are proposed. Show more

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-2009-0828

Citation: Work, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 299-310, 2009

Authors: Maslen, Barbara | Straker, Leon

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Children and young adults are the most frequent users of computers. Whilst guidelines for adults have been based on research, available guidelines for children have had to assume children and adults are similar due to limited research evidence derived specifically from children. This study aimed to compare the posture and muscle activity of children with young adults. Thirty six adults aged 18–25 years, 24 children aged 10–12 years and 18 children aged 5–6 years participated in …a series of laboratory studies. Upper body postures were measured using a 3D motion analysis system. Muscle activity of bilateral cervical erector spinae and upper trapezius muscles was assessed. Mean and variation were examined, the latter using both amplitude range and Exposure Variation Analysis matrix standard deviation. Mean postures assumed by children tended to show more spinal flexion and spinal asymmetry than adults. However children also tended to show more variation in posture and muscle activity. These findings suggest that whilst there may be differences in how children and adults use computers, basic principles of encouraging appropriate postures and variation should apply for both children and adults. Show more

Keywords: Posture, muscle activity, musculoskeletal disorder, children, computers

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-2009-0829

Citation: Work, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 311-320, 2009

Authors: Kelly, Grace | Dockrell, Sara | Galvin, Rose

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: The aim of the study was to investigate the posture and musculoskeletal discomfort of secondary school students while working at computers in school. Students (n = 40) were observed while working at a computer during their designated computer class. The Rapid Upper Limb Assessment Tool (RULA) was used to assess posture. A Body Discomfort Chart (BDC) and Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) were used to record the area(s) and intensity of musculoskeletal discomfort, if any, experienced by …the students at the beginning and end of the computer class. None of the students' posture was in the acceptable range (Action Level 1) according to RULA. The majority (65%) were in Action Level 2, 30% were in Action Level 3, and 5% were in Action Level 4. There was a statistically significant increase in reported discomfort from the beginning to the end of the computer class. Longer class length (80 minutes) did not result in greater reporting of discomfort than shorter class length (40 minutes). Show more

Keywords: Children, computer, posture, musculoskeletal discomfort

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-2009-0830

Citation: Work, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 321-328, 2009

Authors: Lindstrom-Hazel, Debra

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Purpose: A systematic review of the literature between 2003 and 2007 was conducted to explore the questions 1) Are school-aged children actually at risk for back pain because of carrying backpacks? How much of a load is too much? 2) Does backpack in adolescence predict back pain in adulthood? 3) Are there behaviors that lessen/increase the risk of back pain/injury? i.e. education on how to carry, pack the pack and psychosomatic behaviors? Method: Cochrane Collection, Pub-Med, OTSeeker, PEDro, …FirstSearch Medline, ERIC, General Engineering, Engineering Village2 and Goggle Scholar were searched with the following keywords in various combinations: backpack, back pain, load, children, adolescents, pediatrics, and physical fitness. Sixty-three articles were considered for the study to answer the three research questions. Each study was analyzed for specific application to the three questions. Results: Ten articles were analyzed for the first, epidemiological question, two articles were analyzed for the second long term health risk question and seven articles were analyzed for the behavioral question. Conclusion: Weight recommendations and carrying behaviors are not consistently supported in the recent studies; several studies call for an examination of psychosomatic behaviors as potential predictors of back pain in childhood and adolescence. Show more

Keywords: Pediatrics, prevention, children and adolescents

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-2009-0831

Citation: Work, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 329-338, 2009

Authors: Bauer, Denise H. | Freivalds, Andris

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: The load of student's backpacks has raised questions over the safety and health of schoolchildren everywhere. The purpose of this study is to use electromyography (EMG), posture evaluation, heart rate, and ratings of perceived exertion and perceptions of pain to find an acceptable backpack load limit for middle school students. Twenty middle school students aged 11 to 14 (10 female and 10 male) volunteered for the study. The subjects completed two tests, standing stationary and walking …on a treadmill, where they carried 5% incremental loads from 0% body mass (BM) to 20% BM. The study indicated that the Borg-CR10 ratings and trunk flexion angle for the walking trial indicated a possible load limit of 10% BM due to the non-significant difference between 0 and 10% BM and the significant difference between 10 and 15% BM. Show more

Keywords: Child safety, electromyography (EMG), percent body mass

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-2009-0832

Citation: Work, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 339-350, 2009

Authors: Brackley, Heather M. | Stevenson, Joan M. | Selinger, Jessica C.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Parents, educators and researchers have expressed concern about the long term impacts of children carrying excessive loads in their backpacks on a daily basis. Although many researchers have investigated appropriate weight limits for children's packs, little research has been conducted on the design of children's backpacks. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the changes in children's trunk forward lean (TFL), cranio-vertebral angle (CVA) and spinal lordosis angle (LA) that occurred with high, medium and …low load locations during standing and walking. Ten-year-old children (n = 15) completed a repeated measures designed study while carrying 15% of each child's body weight in a typical backpack with only shoulder straps. A special instrumented backpack (IBP) was designed that allowed the weight to be placed in the proper location and continuously measure changes in spinal curvature. TFL and CVA postures were captured on digital video at five intervals including: standing without a backpack prior to a 1000 m walk; standing with a backpack at the beginning and end of a 1000 m walk; and walking with a backpack at the beginning and end of a 1000 m walk. Results indicated that significant changes occurred in TFL and CVA when the backpack was loaded to 15% body weight. The low load placement in the backpack produced fewer changes in CVA from the initial standing baseline measure than the high and mid placements. When all measures were assessed collectively, there were fewer changes in LA in the low load placement. These findings indicate that future backpack designs should place loads lower on the spine in order to minimize children's postural adaptations. Show more

Keywords: Load carriage, backpack design, children, posture, gait, biomechanics

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-2009-0833

Citation: Work, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 351-360, 2009