Advances in Neuroimmune Biology - Volume 3, issue 3-4

Authors: Berczi, Istvan

Article Type: Other

DOI: 10.3233/NIB-012916

Citation: Advances in Neuroimmune Biology, vol. 3, no. 3-4, pp. 225-225, 2012

Authors: Berczi, Istvan

Article Type: Other

DOI: 10.3233/NIB-012917

Citation: Advances in Neuroimmune Biology, vol. 3, no. 3-4, pp. 227-228, 2012

Authors: Berczi, Istvan

Article Type: Other

DOI: 10.3233/NIB-012918

Citation: Advances in Neuroimmune Biology, vol. 3, no. 3-4, pp. 229-234, 2012

Authors: Rybakina, E.G. | Shanin, S.N. | Korneva, E.A.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: The role of Interleukin-1α/Interleukin-1β (IL-1α/IL-1β) production and blood levels, as well as ligand-receptor interactions of IL-1β with locating on immune and nerve target cells have been analyzed. Intracellular signal transduction via the sphingomyelin pathway during the development of stress reaction was also investigated. In mice stress of different durations and intensities induces an increase in the concentration of glucocorticoid hormones and IL-1α/IL-1β in blood. Thymocytes and lymphocytes responded to the concomitant actions of IL-1β, which correlated with the changes in the humoral immune response. These events coincided with stress-induced changes in the activity of neutral-sphingomyelinase, the key enzyme of the …sphingomyelin cascade, in membrane fractions of both the mouse cerebral cortex and thymocytes. It is indicated that changes in functional activity of immune and nerve cells: e.g. proliferative activity of lymphocytes and thymocytes, cytotoxic activity of splenic natural killer (NK) cells, the intensity of cytokine signal transduction in the cells of the immune and neuroendocrine system, can define the disturbances in the immune system and the impairment of neural-immune interactions under stress. Show more

Keywords: Stress, immune system, neural-immune interaction, interleukin-1, neutral sphingomyelinase, natural killer cell

DOI: 10.3233/NIB-012903

Citation: Advances in Neuroimmune Biology, vol. 3, no. 3-4, pp. 235-241, 2012

Authors: Perekrest, S.V. | Shainidze, K.Z. | Novikova, N.S. | Kazakova, T.B. | Korneva, E.A.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: The present review is dedicated to the problem of specificity of central nervous system (CNS) response to different destabilizing stimuli. It concerns some aspects of hypothalamic neuron involvement in central mechanisms of brain reactions to various stimulants. The effects of stress and antigenic stimulation on the hypothalamus are reviewed. Previously it was known that the brain responds specifically to various patterns of stimuli, which depends on the nature and intensity of the stimulus. Antigens have a special place amongst the stimuli applied to the brain. The effects of antigen depend on their biochemical nature though they also are considered to …be stress factors. Show more

Keywords: Neuro-immune interactions, stress, antigen, hypothalamus

DOI: 10.3233/NIB-012914

Citation: Advances in Neuroimmune Biology, vol. 3, no. 3-4, pp. 243-253, 2012

Authors: Shainidze, K.Z. | Perekrest, S.V. | Novikova, N.S. | Kazakova, T.B. | Korneva, E.A.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: To date the system of orexin-containing neurons and neurotransmitters orexin A and B were shown to be involved in brain response to stress. Here we review new experimental data about the involvement of orexin neurons in brain reactions to stressors (hunger, hypoglycemia, immobilization, pain, etc.). Recent evidence shows that the release of orexin A and B may affect the secretion of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis hormones in response to stressors. Hypothalamic orexin-containing neuron groups depend for activation on applied stimulation. The patterns of morphological and functional changes of orexin-containing neurons, which are localized in various hypothalamic structures, were analyzed after various …stressors were applied (eg. restraint stress, cold stress, antigen application). The analysis of the literature and our own data suggest functional identity of populations of orexin-containing neurons in the perifornical part of hypothalamus. The reactions of orexin-sensitive cells of the hypothalamus, midbrain, medulla, spinal cord and immune organs to antigen injections in different doses reflect changes in the functional of orexinergic cells. These data indicate the participation of orexin system in brain reaction to various kinds of stressors. Show more

Keywords: Orexin, hypothalamus, stress, lipopolysaccharide, adrenal glands

DOI: 10.3233/NIB-012915

Citation: Advances in Neuroimmune Biology, vol. 3, no. 3-4, pp. 255-264, 2012

Authors: Rohleder, Nicolas

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Chronic stress is an important predictor of morbidity and mortality in humans. While research has made major advances in understanding the biological pathways between long-term stress exposure and pathophysiological mechanisms underlying adverse health outcomes, one major issue remains: Alterations of major stress systems hypothalamus pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis and sympathetic nervous system (SNS) are not consistently found, and/or are insufficient in explaining the stress-disease link. Chronic, and systemic low-grade inflammation has emerged as a promising pathway, because inflammation is more consistently found elevated in conditions of chronic psychosocial stress, and these alterations of inflammatory activity can be directly related with …specific pathophysiological mechanisms underlying important diseases associated with chronic stress, such as cardiovascular disease. However, increased inflammation is theoretically incompatible with the frequent finding of unchanged, or decreased basal HPA axis activity. It has therefore been suggested that one of the major changes in chronic stress manifests itself in the ability of the inflammatory tissues to adequately respond to anti-inflammatory signaling of stress systems. The aim of this review article is to summarize our current knowledge about the ability of the stress systems HPA axis, sympathetic, and parasympathetic nervous system to control inflammation. Show more

Keywords: Chronic stress, inflammation, cytokines, cortisol, catecholamines, sympathetic nervous system, catecholamine sensitivity, glucocorticoid sensitivity

DOI: 10.3233/NIB-012904

Citation: Advances in Neuroimmune Biology, vol. 3, no. 3-4, pp. 265-276, 2012

Authors: Berczi, Istvan | Quintanar Stephano, Andres

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: The adaptive immune system (ADIM) involves the bone marrow that produce bone marrow derived (B) lymphocytes, and also release precursor cells for thymus derived (T) lymphocytes. B cell produce antibodies and regulate antibody formation, T cells mediate cellular immunity by killer T cells, and T cells mediating delayed type hypersensitivity. During an ADIM response, T and B lymphocytes proliferate, and their receptors undergo somatic mutation and clonal selection in order to generate highly specific antigen receptors. Seven to ten days needed for an adaptive immune response to develop. Antigen presenting cells (APC) initiate the ADIM response. Innate immunity (INIM) protects …us for life. Innate antigen receptors are germ line coded, constant and polyspecific. The bone marrow produces monocyte/macrophages which recognize antigen, CD5+ B lymphocytes producing polyreactive natural antibodies, and polymorhonuclear granulocytes which are phagocytic cells. Natural killer, NK and NKT cells, and suppressor/regulatory T (Ts/r) cells are thymus derived. Cytokines are produced by monocytee/macrophages, NK, NKT Ts/r cells. The liver produces acute phase proteins (APP). Complement, properdin, defensins, scavenger receptors, enzymes and numerous other substances function as APP. The INIM system is capable of instantaneous defense at any time even under adverse conditions it will protect the host. During homeostasis both the adaptive and innate immune systems are regulated by vasopressin (VP) and everything works in harmony. During acute illness immune derived cytokines induce the acute phase response (APR), which is an emergency defense reaction against life threatening insults. During APR the INIM system is stimulated rapidly (maximum ~1000 times, within 24–48 hours) and take over host defense as the ADIM system is not capable for a rapid response, and it is suppressed. Major endocrine, metabolic, and immune alterations take place. The HPA axis, sympathetic nervous system, glucocorticoids, catecholamines, pro-inflammatory cytokines, the brain, liver and white blood cells mediate APR. Fever and catabolism are hallmarks of APR. APR is the last effort by the organism to survive a life threatening event. In the overwhelming majority, febrile illness will be followed by recovery, which indicates the efficiency of this reaction. As a rule acute febrile illness will subside and chronic inflammatory disease will follow. During chronic inflammation VP becomes the hypothalamic regulator of immune and inflammatory process. Recovery will follow in most instances. The neuroendocrine, metabolic and immune abnormalities will be normalized and VP will serve as the hypothalamic factor regulating bodily functions during homeostasis. In cases when chronic stress does not subside, the INIM system will remain activated, and because of the excess energy requirement of this system cachexia may develop, which may be a lethal condition. Show more

Keywords: Stress, adaptive immunity, innate immunity, acute illness, conditioned immune reactions

DOI: 10.3233/NIB-012911

Citation: Advances in Neuroimmune Biology, vol. 3, no. 3-4, pp. 277-285, 2012

Authors: Vecsernyés, Miklós | Kovács, Krisztina J. | Tóth, Béla E. | Welke, Laura | Nagy, György M.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: One of the basic neuro-immune-endocrine interaction is the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) to harmonize immune response to inflammatory stressors. Immune defense mechanisms mediated by cytokines and other humoral factors play particularly important roles in this communication. They are also potent activators in the CNS and factors of the HPA axis, like an increased secretion of glucocorticoids (GC). They can act as major feedback regulator of the vertebrate immune response via suppression of a wide range of cytokines, as well as interferons. Increases in systemic GC levels, however, often play dual role: do not suppress all cytokines since inhibition of a particular …cytokine may result in elevated production of others. External stimuli/acute stress can compromise activation of the HPA axis and activate immune processes for defense, redirecting leukocytes from the circulation to the environment/organism interface. Overall it results in release of danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) to activate cells of the innate immune system, which is resolved by neural, hormonal or immune mechanisms. The chronic stress leads to chronic immune arousal and subsequent sterile, low-grade inflammation, which has been identified in most “stress-related or “civilized” disorders in humans. The role of pituitary-gonadal axis in the activation of HPA axis results in a gender difference in HPA response to immunological challenges: e.g. can be varied during the estrus cycle, pregnancy or lactation. That corresponds to the results of recent experimental data that reveals an important role of certain neurotramsitters (such as dopamine) in immune regulation. Internal constitutional-factors of neuro-immune-endocrine interaction, such as corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and its receptors (CRF-R1 and CRF-R2), melanocortin peptides, glucocorticoids or pro-inflammatory cytokines can also act as an immunoregulator, since their receptors is present in lymphoid organs, also in peripheral blood and organs that are enhanced under inflammatory conditions. In spite of series experimental data, the role of CRH and other members of its family, as well as its receptors in inflammation are still controversial. This dual role may be due to different CRF receptors and altered functionality. There are several putative mechanisms or “ports of entry”, in which the cytokines may affect HPA activity and CRH release. Some influences of cytokines on the HPA axis may be exerted by an indirect way. The aim of our review was to summarize and outline of key interacting agents based upon recent experimental results. Show more

DOI: 10.3233/NIB-012907

Citation: Advances in Neuroimmune Biology, vol. 3, no. 3-4, pp. 287-295, 2012

Authors: Boscolo, Paolo | Forcella, Laura | Cortini, Michela | Reale, Marcella

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: In several countries, work is considered not only source of income, but also represents well-being and social identity, provides social relations, regular daily activity and planning of life. Job stress may derive from environmental conditions, not necessarily related to the working activities, but to additional conditions such as low social support, repetitive work, gratification and shifts. Moreover, perception of job insecurity today affects also the workers with stable employment because of the global economic crisis. Stress job conditions or situations of job insecurity may influence the life style, including smoking habit, healthy dietary habits and mental health status; they are …considered serious stressful situations which may induce emotional disorders. Job strain and/or insecurity may thus affect both neuroendocrine and immune systems: reduced immune reactivity to mitogens and/or decreased blood NK cytotoxic activity was reported either in unemployed workers or in those with a high perception of job insecurity and/or job stress. It is also known that stress play an important role in autoimmune diseases. Although genetic factors have a key role in the pathogenesis of autoimmune disorders, occupational stress (as in night shifts) was also reported associated to an increased incidence of autoimmune disorders. Show more

Keywords: Lifestyle, job strain, well-being at work, immune response, NK activity, autoimmunity

DOI: 10.3233/NIB-012905

Citation: Advances in Neuroimmune Biology, vol. 3, no. 3-4, pp. 297-300, 2012

Authors: Berczi, Istvan

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Adaptive immune reactions are based on lymphocyte proliferation, and are regulated by mechanisms which are involved in growth regulation of all cells in higher animals. Growth and lactogenic hormones (GLH) or type I cytokines (TICTK) are of fundamental importance for the development and function of the immune system and indeed for the entire organism. GLH/TICTK deliver the competence signal first to lymphocytes and other cells, which enable the cells to receive stromal or adherence signals that decide what the cell will do next, proliferate, differentiate, or function. This group of signals control cell growth, is delivered by cell-to-cell and cell-to-matrix …signalling. Adhesion molecules, tissue bound hormones, cytokines and matrix components mediate these signals. The antigen receptor belongs to the Immunoglobulin Family of adhesion molecules. Hence the antigen signal is capable to activate specifically the immune response, it can inhibit it also. Within the immune system antigen presentation represents the adhesion signal for which cell-to-cell interaction by adhesion molecules is obligatory. Adhesion molecules are fundamental to the organization of multi-cellular organisms and the signals delivered by them serve the basis of species, organ and tissue specific recognition. This recognition system has been perfected during evolution from self-recognition to individually specific antigen recognition. This system also plays a role in the elimination of degenerated and neoplastic cells. Cell-to-cell signaling has a dominant power over other signals to commit the cell to proliferation. The mitotic cycle is then completed by cytokine signals. Cytokines are tissue hormones which are usually, but not always, secreted by the same cells that deliver the second signal. IGF-I and insulin fulfil frequently this role, but cytokines may also deliver this third signal. The nature and combination of these three groups of signals will determine the fate of each cell, which may be survival, proliferation, differentiation and function or alternately apoptosis. Hormones and neurotransmitters, that alter signal delivery, modulate further this basic pattern of animal cell growth. It is concluded that GLH/TICTK maintain immunocompetence, which enables the immune system to respond to specific antigenic and mitogenic stimuli. Competence signalling comes from either the CNS or by TICTK, which is an autologous signal by the immune system. This dual signalling secures that the immune system is capable of surviving major disasters in the personal history of the host. Indeed memory T and B ells survive autonomously, and live trough major catastrophic events, and when the disaster is over, memory cells regenerate the adaptive immune system and bring back homeostasis of immune function which is the prerequisite for healing and homeostasis of the entire organism. The hypothalamic hormone, vasopressin (VP) regulates healing and recovery from disease. Show more

Keywords: Immunocompetence, growth hormone, polactin, adrenocorticotropic hormone, vasopressin, adaptive immune system, innate immune system, type I cytokines, competence signals, progression signals, cytokine signals, healing

DOI: 10.3233/NIB-012910

Citation: Advances in Neuroimmune Biology, vol. 3, no. 3-4, pp. 301-312, 2012

Authors: Berczi, Istvan | Quintanar-Stephano, Andres | Kovacs, Kalman

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) and Vasopressin (VP) are the hypothalamic immunoregulators. The CRH – adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) - glucocorticoid (GC) and catecholamine (CAT) axis, jointly with Vasopressin (VP), stimulate innate immunity (INIM). During acute illness CRH activates the HPA-GC-CAT axis and INIM will be amplified up to 1000 times in 24–48 hours. GC and CAT stimulate directly INIM and also generate suppressor/regulatory T cells (Ts/r) which inhibit adaptive immune (ADIM) function. APR is a complex metabolic, endocrine and immune response which leads to a systemic inflammatory response. This is the last attempt to save the host organism from life threatening …disease/injury. In most cases healing and recovery will follow, so APR is a very effective in host defense. Show more

Keywords: Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH), vasopressin (VP), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), cathecolamines (CAT), innate immunity (INIM), adaptive immunity (ADIM), acute phase response (APR), suppressor/regulatory T cells (Ts/r)

DOI: 10.3233/NIB-012909

Citation: Advances in Neuroimmune Biology, vol. 3, no. 3-4, pp. 313-328, 2012

Authors: Berczi, Istvan | Quintanar, Andres | Campos, Rafael | Kovacs, Kalman

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Vasopressin has emerged in recent years as a very important immunoregulatory peptide of the hypothalamus. Vasopressin is capable of maintaining immune function, both innate and adaptive immunity. This is due to the ability of vasopressin to stimulate both the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis and also prolactin. The hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis is important for innate immune function, whereas prolactin and growth hormone maintain adaptive immunocompetence. Recent results show that vasopressin also has a direct regulatory effect on cytokines. During acute illness vasopressin will rise along with corticotrophin releasing hormone. In this case corticotrophin releasing hormone regulates the inflammatory process, and vasopressin supports this role. …Innate immunity is amplified by glucoicorticoids and catecholamines whereas adaptive immune function is suppressed. During chronic inflammation corticotrophin releasing hormone is repressed and vasopressin becomes the primary hypothalamic immunoregulator. Vasopressin gradually restores homeostasis by maitaining both the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis and prolactin secretion in balance and hence restores normal immune function and leads to healing and recovery of the organism. Therefore, the two hypothalamic immunoregulatory peptides, corticotrophin releasing hormone and vasopressin have different functions. Corticotrophin releasing hormone plays an important function in acute phase response, whereas vasopressin supports the acute phase response, but it is really the hypothalamic regulator of healing and of physiological immune regulation. Both corticotrophin releasing hormone and vasopressin exert numerous regulatory functions throughout the entire organism. It is beyond the scope of this review to present non-immune effects of these mediators. The first papers on oxytocin and growth hormone release go back to 1969–70. Little was done until recent times. It is now clear that oxytocin is an immunoregulatory hormone and it shows therapeutic value in the inhibition of septic conditions. This must be related of its immunoregulatory power. Oxytocin interacts with cytokines. So far oxytocin receptors were shown only on bovine T cells. The thymus and the pituitary gland produce oxytocin. Oxytocin injections to animals either stimulate (low dose) or inhibit (high dose) growth hormone secretion. Other evidence also supports the regulation of growth hormone by oxytocin. Oxytocin activates the adrenal corticotropic hormone axis in rats. Oxytocin will be released in response to sepsis, and other form of infections, inflammatory disease and in stress situations. On this basis we conclude that oxytocin is an immunoregulatory hormone and it participates in the acute phase response, it releases growth hormone, and activates the adrenal corticotropic hormone axis in rats. More work is required to appreciate fully the value of oxytocin in immune function. Show more

Keywords: Hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis, innate immunity, prolactin, growth hormone, adaptive immunity, vasopessin, cytokines, acute phase response, oxytocin is immunoregulatory and active in acute phase reactions

DOI: 10.3233/NIB-012908

Citation: Advances in Neuroimmune Biology, vol. 3, no. 3-4, pp. 329-343, 2012

Authors: Santos-Argumedo, Leopoldo

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Natural antibodies are those antibodies present in the circulation of vertebrates that have not been previously exposed to specific antigens [1]. Natural antibodies were identified at the beginning of 20th century in the sera of humans or laboratory animals that had not been specifically immunized [1]. The best characterized and studied natural antibodies are those directed against blood group substances; it was reported that individuals with “0” blood group/type had sera/plasma antibodies against A and B antigens, whereas individuals of A group only have anti- B antibodies and vice versa [2, 3]. This puzzling observation was difficult to explain because …it was not known that blood group substances contain epitopes shared with microorganisms living in the gut of the individuals. Another observation was related to the relative “tolerance” of the individuals to their own blood group antigens because, at that time, no auto-antibodies were detected under normal circumstances. Using more sensitive methods it has been established that natural antibodies are present in the sera/plasma of normal healthy individuals and that these antibodies may have a physiological role connecting the immune system and may participate in the removal of aging cells, miss folded proteins, etc. [3–8]. Some characteristics of natural antibodies have been described over the years. Most natural antibodies are the IgM isotype, although other isotypes, such as IgG and IgA, are also present. Natural antibodies are germ line encoded, meaning that under normal circumstances they do not contain mutations in their variable regions. Natural antibodies have polyreactive binding sites, which imply that these antibodies may bind different epitopes with different structure/conformation. Due to their polyreactivity, natural antibodies often bind with low to medium affinity (105 –107 M−1 ) [4, 5, 9, 10]. As mentioned above, the specificity of these antibodies is directed against normal microbiota, but some clearly recognize self-antigens. Natural antibodies may also have a role in protection against invading microorganisms [7, 8, 11–15]. Show more

Keywords: B1 cells, natural antibodies

DOI: 10.3233/NIB-012912

Citation: Advances in Neuroimmune Biology, vol. 3, no. 3-4, pp. 345-352, 2012

Authors: Rybakina, E.G. | Shanin, S.N. | Fomicheva, E.E. | Dmitrienko, E.V. | Filatenkova, T.A. | Korneva, E.A.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: The authors analyzed the effects of short synthetic peptides and native DNA preparations on the function of the immune and neuroendocrine systems under various stress conditions. These preparations of peptides and nucleotides are known to be effective modulators of the immune and neuroendocrine systems. Here we discuss a new concept, which suggests that endogenous short peptides and their synthetic analogs bind to specific sequences of nucleotides in DNA strands. These site-specific peptide-DNA interactions modulate cellular genetic functions and form the basis of molecular-genetics of stress-protective short synthetic peptides. Protective action of nucleotide preparations on impaired functions of the immune and …neuroendocrine systems was shown. It seems that these effects are based on the ability of nucleotides to penetrate cells and subsequently splitting into nucleotides, which, after releasing from the cell, bind to purinergic P2 receptors. The results indicate that short synthetic peptides and native DNA preparations are capable of correcting stress induced impairment of neuroimmune function. Show more

Keywords: Stress, immune system, short synthetic peptides, nucleotides

DOI: 10.3233/NIB-012902

Citation: Advances in Neuroimmune Biology, vol. 3, no. 3-4, pp. 353-360, 2012

Authors: Fukuda, Sanae | Kuratsune, Hirohiko | Kajimoto, Osami | Watanabe, Yasuyoshi

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) is a disorder diagnosed following at least 6 months of disabling, unexplained mental and physical fatigue accompanied by other physical and psychological symptoms. Fibromyalgia (FM) is a chronic pain syndrome of unknown etiology characterized by diffuse pain and tender points, which must be present for more than 3 months. These patients have the path similarity in psycho-neuro-endocrino-immunological system. In this paper, we introduce quantitative methods for assessment of fatigue developed by us. We then briefly summarize abnormalities found in CFS and FM, and show the neural and molecular mechanisms and introduce potential common biomarkers for CFS …and FM. Show more

Keywords: Chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia, psycho-neuro-endocrino-immunological system, fatigue-related problem scale

DOI: 10.3233/NIB-012906

Citation: Advances in Neuroimmune Biology, vol. 3, no. 3-4, pp. 361-366, 2012

Authors: Pukhalsky, Alexander | Shmarina, Galina | Alioshkin, Vladimir

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: The brain and immune system being the two principal adaptive systems in the body permanently share information both in the form of neural impulses and soluble mediators. The CNS differs from other organs due to several peculiarities that affect local immune surveillance. The brain, which is separated from the rest of the body by blood-brain-barrier (BBB), produces the cytokines by itself and the latter along with other neurotransmitters regulate various brain functions including cognition, memory, and neuronal differentiation. The stress of different origin increases the serum cytokine levels and disrupts BBB. As a result peripheral cytokines penetrate into the brain …where they begin to perform new functions. Long-term stress as well as physiological aging result in hormonal disturbance, first of all in the form of HPA axis depletion and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) decrease. Thus, the changes observed in stressed subject form a picture typical of the aging brain. The concept of stressful cognitive dysfunction, which is under consideration in this review, allows picking out several therapeutic targets. Clinical and experimental studies confirm efficiency of such choice although in some instances we can say only about indirect evidences. Show more

Keywords: Stress, cognitive dysfunction, HPA axis, glucocorticoids, dehydroepiandrosterone, cytokines, Tregs, inflammation, cyclophosphamide, macrolides, angiotensin II receptor blockers

DOI: 10.3233/NIB-012913

Citation: Advances in Neuroimmune Biology, vol. 3, no. 3-4, pp. 367-379, 2012

Authors: Berczi, Istvan | Quintanar Stephano, Andres | Nagy, Gyorgy

Article Type: Other

DOI: 10.3233/NIB-012919

Citation: Advances in Neuroimmune Biology, vol. 3, no. 3-4, pp. 381-386, 2012

Article Type: Other

Citation: Advances in Neuroimmune Biology, vol. 3, no. 3-4, pp. 387-388, 2012