Associations of Spatial Disparities of Alzheimer’s Disease Mortality Rates with Soil Selenium and Sulfur Concentrations and Four Common Risk Factors in the United States
Affiliations: Health Studies Institute, GEMS Department, Rider University, Lawrenceville, New Jersey, USA
Correspondence:
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Correspondence to: Hongbing Sun, PhD, Professor, Health Studies Institute, GEMS Department, Rider University, 2083 Lawrenceville Road, Lawrenceville, New Jersey 08648, USA. Tel.: +1 609 896 5185; Fax: +1 609 895 5782; E-mail: [email protected].
Abstract: Background: Associations between environmental factors and spatial disparity of mortality rates of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) in the US are not well understood. Objective: To find associations between 41 trace elements, four common risk factors, and AD mortality rates in the48 contiguous states. Methods: Isopleth maps of AD mortality rates of the 48 states and associated factors were examined. Correlations between state average AD mortality rates and concentrations of 41 soil elements, wine consumption, percentage of current smokers, obesity, and diagnosed diabetes of the 48 states between 1999 and 2014 were analyzed. Results: Among 41 elements, soil selenium concentrations have the most significant inverse correlations with AD mortality rates. Rate ratio (RR) of the 6 states with the lowest product of soil selenium and sulfur concentrations is 53% higher than the 6 states with the highest soil selenium sulfur product in the 48 states (RR = 1.53, CI95% 1.51–1.54). Soil tin concentrations have the most significant inverse correlation with AD mortality growth rates between 1999 and 2014, followed by soil sulfur concentrations. Percentages of obesity, diagnosed diabetes, smoking, and wine consumption per capita also correlate significantly with AD mortality growth rates. Conclusions: High soil selenium and sulfur concentrations and wine consumption are associated with low AD mortality rates. Given that average soil selenium and sulfur concentrations are indicators of their intakes from food, water, and air by people in a region, long-term exposure to high soil selenium and sulfur concentrations might be beneficial to AD mortality rate reduction in a region.
Keywords: Alzheimer’s disease, soil selenium, spatial disparity, sulfur, tin
