Journal of X-Ray Science and Technology - Volume 4, issue 2

Authors: Knight, Larry V.

Article Type: Research Article

DOI: 10.3233/XST-1994-4201

Citation: Journal of X-Ray Science and Technology, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 77-81, 1994

Authors: Mutikainen, Risto | Viitanen, Veli-Pekka | Nenonen, Seppo

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: A technology capable of producing large-area pressure-tolerant x-ray entrance windows of submicrometer thickness is presented. It is based on successive tungsten griddings to support a multilayered membrane consisting of polyimide, aluminum, and aluminum nitride. The aspects of design and fabrication processes are discussed with emphasis on the window foil fabrication. The performance of the windows is presented in terms of x-ray transmission, gas leak, pressure endurance, and radiation hardness properties.

DOI: 10.3233/XST-1994-4202

Citation: Journal of X-Ray Science and Technology, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 82-95, 1994

Authors: Tarrio, C. | Watts, R. N. | Lucatorto, T. B. | Haass, M. | Calcott, T. A. | Jia, J.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: We have recently begun a series of upgrades to the NIST/ARPA National Reflectometry Facility at the Synchrotron Ultraviolet Radiation Facility. The facility currently consists of a new monochromator and the original sample manipulator which allows us to measure optical components less than 10 cm in diameter. The monochromator offers high throughput and modest resolution over the wavelength range 3.5-40 nm. In the next year we will be installing a sample manipulator that will be able to accommodate the much larger optics that will be used in future x-ray projection lithography and astronomy instruments. We offer preliminary measurements of the throughput …and resolution of the new monochromator. Show more

DOI: 10.3233/XST-1994-4203

Citation: Journal of X-Ray Science and Technology, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 96-101, 1994

Authors: Elliott, J. C. | Anderson, P. | Gao, X. J. | Wong, F. S. L. | Davis, G. R. | Dowker, S. E. P.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: In scanning microradiography (SMR), a thin section is stepped across a 15-μm diameter X-ray beam and the transmitted intensity measured at each point. This technique has permitted more accurate measurements of the spatial variation of the mineral concentration in sections of dentin and enamel than conventional photographic microradiography. Moreover, because the section is not in close contact with an emulsion, SMR allows continuous study while the specimen is bathed in a reaction solution. The present studies have been particularly directed to gaining an understanding of the formation and repair of carious lesions in teeth: one particular puzzle is subsurface demineralization, …in which the initial loss of mineral appears to take place some 20 to 50 μm below the tooth surface. SMR studies are reported here on the demineralization in dilute acids and the subsequent partial remineralization in supersaturated calcium phosphate solutions in model systems for dental caries. In order to develop a theoretical model for de- and remineralization of carious lesions, it is necessary to quantify transport processes within the tooth. To this end, we are developing a method of measuring effective diffusion coefficients of strongly X-ray-absorbing ions in water within permeable solids in which the diffusion coefficient varies with position. The method uses sequential concentration/distance profiles determined by SMR. As a test, diffusion coefficients of potassium iodide in water within a permeable glass frit have been measured. X-ray microtomography (XMT) can be carried out by adding an axis of rotation to the SMR apparatus. Using this method, linear absorption coefficients, and hence mineral concentrations, can be measured in 15 X 15 X 15-μm3 voxels. This has advantages over SMR in that superposition within the depth of the section and errors in determining its thickness are avoided. XMT studies of de- and remineralization similar to those described above for SMR, and also XMT studies of the variation in mineral concentration in the cortical bone of a rat femur along its length, are reported. Show more

DOI: 10.3233/XST-1994-4204

Citation: Journal of X-Ray Science and Technology, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 102-117, 1994

Authors: Spiller, Eberhard

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: It is shown that the technologies required to produce large normal-incidence multilayer x-ray mirrors with diffraction-limited resolution are now available. Applications of these mirrors in x-ray astronomy and x-ray lithography are discussed.

DOI: 10.3233/XST-1994-4205

Citation: Journal of X-Ray Science and Technology, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 118-129, 1994

Authors: Rheinländer, Jørgen | Abdali, Salim | Zielinska-Rohozinska, Elzbieta

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: The conventional photographic prints obtained from double crystal x-ray topography are often hard to interprete and reproduce. Photographic enhancement methods require skillful work by an experienced photographer. They are time consuming and the image information is difficult to present quantitatively. Alternatively, image processing methods may be applied by digitization of the original topographic recording. Image processing computer programs may be applied, e.g., for image enhancement and for quantification of image information. This paper’s main interest is related to —obtaining a sufficiently high magnification ratio; —correcting for intensity variations within the image; —applying spatial filtering techniques in order to reduce …film grain noise; —improving contrast, and —retrieving quantative information on image details. The application of such image processing routines is exemplified on topographs obtained by a double-crystal diffractometer set to the (+, -) asymmetric-asymmetric setting. A silicon single crystal was used as the monochromator, while the sample was a silicon single crystal which had undergone both surface damage and metallic contamination before the application of Rapid Thermal Annealing (RTA). Hence, well-defined microdefects are found within the sample. These computer-processed images are compared with corresponding images enhanced by conventional techniques. The results provide indications of which enhancement procedures should be applied for qualitative image improvement and for quantification of image details within different types of topographic recordings. Show more

DOI: 10.3233/XST-1994-4206

Citation: Journal of X-Ray Science and Technology, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 130-141, 1994

Authors: Gutman, Georgy

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Soft x-ray projection lithography and microscopy require a high throughput and diffraction-limited performance of a multielement imaging system. To meet these requirements for a specific design it is necessary to (1) achieve high normal incidence reflectivity on each optical element while optimizing the d-spacing variation across the surface of the optical element and (2) match the rf-spacing on each optical element to that of the others according to the ray-tracing design. A technique used to achieve normal incidence reflectivity greater than 60% at 13 nm for Mo/Si and greater than 2.7% at the "water window" region for W/B4 C coatings …is discussed. In addition, methods to obtain a rf-spacing uniformity of ±0.4% and to match the d-spacing between imaging mirrors with an accuracy of ±0.5% are considered. A method for characterizing multilayer coatings on curved surfaces, using cylindrical witness optics with precalculated shape and radius of curvature to simulate final optics, and a manufacturing method for witness optics are also presented. Show more

DOI: 10.3233/XST-1994-4207

Citation: Journal of X-Ray Science and Technology, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 142-150, 1994

Authors: Sareen, R. A.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: The detection of low-energy x rays in a precise and efficient manner is now routinely performed with a range of solid state detectors. These devices have been developed continuously over the past 30 years to the point where current performance closely matches theoretical predictions for resolution and efficiency. To achieve these goals parallel developments in field effect transistors and amplifiers were also required. To fully understand the problems associated with the development and use of these detectors it is necessary to discuss both the generation of x rays and the way in which x rays interact with the available detector …materials. The energy range considered is 0-100 keV and a comparison between the successful lithium drifted silicon detector and the more recently re-developed high-purity germanium detectors for these low energy applications is given. Show more

DOI: 10.3233/XST-1994-4208

Citation: Journal of X-Ray Science and Technology, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 151-165, 1994